Endoscopic luminal stenting: Current applications and future perspectives

Table 1 Types of stents

Types of stents	Appropriate indications	Pros	Cons
Uncovered SEMS	Poor survival	Low risk of migration	High risk of tumor ingrowth
	High risk of migration		Difficult removal
	Gastroduodenal obstruction
Partially covered SEMS	Risk of migration		Difficult removal
Fully covered SEMS	Risk of tumor in growth	Safe and easy removal	High risk of migration
	Temporary measure	Low risk of tumor in growth
SEPS	Temporary measure	Safe and easy removal	Complex and stiff stent introducer
	Esophageal stricture	No tumor in growth	High risk of stent failure

SEMS: Self-expanding metal stents; SEPS: Self-expanding plastic stents.

Table 2 Common complications of esophageal stents

Early complications	Long-term complications
Pain	Occlusion
Migration	Gastroesophageal reflux
Expansion/deployment failure	Dysphagia
Mispositioning	Fistula formation
Bleeding	Bleeding

Table 3 Complications of gastroduodenal stents

Early complications	Long-term complications
Migration	Migration
Obstruction	Perforation
Biliary obstruction	Obstruction
Perforation	Fistula formation
Bleeding	Stent fracture
Mispositioning	None

Table 4 Common applications of stent placement in the large intestine

Common applications
Colorectal carcinoma and bowel obstruction
In non-operative candidates
Bowel obstruction
In non-operative candidates
Local postoperative neoplastic recurrence
Preoperative decompression in obstructing resectable colorectal carcinoma (bridge-to-surgery)
Relief of large bowel obstruction from extracolonic malignancy, pelvic mass or peritoneal carcinomatosis
Malignant colorectal fistula, e.g., to the urinary bladder or vagina
Postoperative anastomotic leakage
Fistula formation

Table 5 Complications of colon stents

Early complications	Long-term complications
Technical failure (malpositioning or incomplete expansion)	Stent migration
Stent misplacement/failed relief of obstruction	Obstruction recurrence
Bleeding	Chemotherapy-related perforation
Stent migration	Fistula formation
Pelvic or rectal pain	Bleeding
	Ischemia